Cardio-vascular disease in the United States Essay

Cardio-vascular disease in the United States - Essay Example In order to target this leading national health problem, The American Heart Association (AHA) updated CVD prevention guidelines for women in early 2007, encouraging the pursuit of a healthy lifestyle early on. In previous decades, CVD was thought to affect greater proportions of American men than women. This was an incorrect conclusion, but reinforced by the fact that clinical trials predominantly used male subjects instead of females, and that women are less likely to show cardiovascular symptoms as early as males. In fact, on average, women begin to show symptoms 10 years later in life then do men. It is evident in the research literature as well as in formal published insurance analyses (Murasko 1746) that women continue to receive less aggressive treatment for CVD events than is provided to men and this inadequate treatment worsens with the patient’s increasing age (Murasko 1755-6, Sarafidis 224; Alter et al. 1916). At the same time, women survive CVD events such as myocar dial infarction (MI) more frequently than do men (ibid.), adding to the US population segment comprised of the elderly with cardiac history, inadequate treatment, and higher long-term medical expenses, because their risk of additional CVD events is 1.5 – 15% higher than average: â€Å"After adjusting for baseline differences, the relative rates of angiography and follow-up specialist care for women relative to men, respectively, fell 17.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 13.6 to 21.3, p â€Å"†¦ for individuals with previously diagnosed heart disease or stroke, a lack of coverage is more strongly associated with lower

Cultural Assessment (M4C) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Cultural Assessment (M4C) - Essay Example Working upon doctrines of mind-body dualism, mechanical analogy, physical reductionism, definite regimen and control, and specific cause for every disease, the Western scientific paradigm offers treatments that are statistically different and proven. It has many implications for health care in U.S. in that it works upon the mind and body separately and the body is considered as a number of interrelated systems working together and any abnormality in any of these systems is cured by treating the cause of that disease. 2. Since, Western science looks at the disease from a mechanistic view, it focuses more on the treatment which makes it very expensive. The body is considered as all materialistic and if something is not seen under the microscope, it means that it does not exist. In a culturally diverse society as U.S., the Western scientific paradigm can be a problem because it may cause cultural clashes between the communities because of difference of opinions and beliefs.

Who Invented Christian Martyrdom Religion Essay

Who Invented Christian Martyrdom Religion Essay The questions of who invented Christian martyrdom and why, and who was the first Christian martyr, are ambivalent in themselves as there cannot be a definite correct answer. When considering the history, many key related figures become apparent. There are three possible areas in which martyrdom may have been invented, these are the Christians, the Jews and the Romans. There is evidence of martyrdom stemming from each of these groups, which will be addressed in this essay. As well as the three groups mentioned above, there are individual examples of those who may have had been responsible for the initial inspiration that formed the invention of martyrdom. The Romans undoubtedly played a large part in the development of martyrdom. The formation of the Roman Empire following the Republican period, created an autocratic empire that ruled the majority of Europe and surroundings areas of the Mediterranean. This gave the first Emperor Augustus and his predecessors power to control the religious institutions. The development of Christianity was seen by the Roman Empire as both superstition and atheism. The first accusations of the Christians came after the Great Fire on Nero in 64. The Christians were a convenient religious group to blame this upon (even though after the fire Nero himself used the landmass to build, making the fire seem extremely convenient for his own uses, which brings about questions of the sincerity of the accusations of the fire) and from this came persecution and execution. Christians were subsequently dealt with in this way, and from this it can be claimed, that martyrdom stemmed from the Roman Empire. Christians were being forced into execution, and through support of their religion they came to prefer death rather than deny their religion and live.  [1]  The Roman Emperors views differed on the prosecution of the Christians. The attitudes were sporadic. Nero, Decian and Diocletion were responsible for serious attacks on Christianity however Trajan was rather lenient to Christians compared to other Emperors. Pliny is somewhat ambivalent, not knowing whether the crime is being a Christian or the secret crimes connected with the name  [2]   It can be argued that Christian martyrdom was invented by the Jews, as it was Jesus himself who died for his faith, and obviously being a Jew this would lead the invention back to Judaism. However as this was pre-Christianity it cannot be said to be the invention of Christian martyrdom, just a moral example. As well as the latter point, Jews had been taught from the early prophets to scorn the religions of his neighbours, even if these for the time being appeared to be more successful in earthly rewards than himself.  [3]   It was of course the Christians themselves who were martyred, but it can be suggested that if it were not for the prosecution of the Christians by the Roman Empire then Christian martyrdom would not have come about at all. There would have been no need to prove their faith. The martyrs became something of an example for other Christians, and inspiration to stick by their faith. The author of source 20 in A New Eubusis states how blessed and noble are all the martyrdoms which have taken place and respects their nobility and endurance and love for their Master.  [4]  As in the words of Polycarp, when told to curse Christ, Polycarp continued to confess himself as a Christian, and when faced with being burnt alive commented that I must needs be burnt alive, so that he might take a portion among the martyrs in the cup of Christ, because he wanted to be a rich and acceptable sacrifice  [5]  This gives evidence to show that despite the imminence of death, their faith would remain. As well as looking at the groups mentioned above, there are certain individuals who can be said to have had a significant effect on the development of martyrdom. Martyrdom can be thought to have originated from the figure of Jesus, and his crucifixion at the hands of the Romans due to his blasphemous claims. Jesus apostles were thought to have emulated him in this way, as nearly all his apostles in turn died at the hands of their beliefs and faith in Jesus. It is this act of Jesus that is claimed by some to be where martyrdom began, making Jesus the inventor of martyrdom. Despite this claim, I would argue that Jesus is an exemplar rather than a creator. Evidence for this statement is clear in the account of Polycarps martyrdom where there are references to crucifixion, the Lord might once again give an example of the martyrdom which resembles the gospel story.  [6]  It is also stated in the martyrdom that Polycarp refused to blaspheme saying For eighty-six years I have been his servant and he has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme against my king and saviour?  [7]  It also becomes clear in the Martyrs of Lyons and Vienne, 177, where Christ if often mentioned, with references such as then in turn a mighty dispensation of God came to pass, and the measureless compassion of Jesus was displayed , in a manner rarely vouchsafed among the brethren, but not beyond the art of Christ.  [8]  Both letters make clear and relevant that Jesus actions were the incentive, and that his actions gave them the strength and power to die for their beliefs. Although it can be argued that Jesus was the martyr exemplar, he cannot be called a martyr himself. There is very little evidence suggesting he was ever called a martyr. In fact the only time the word is ever mentioned is in Revelation 2:13 and Acts 22:20 with reference to his disciples as martyrs, meaning witness as this is the Greek root of the word. So the word martyr is associated with Jesus death, but with a different meaning and this is further highlighted by a very relevant Christian martyr, Ignatius of Antioch, who didnt even use the Greek word martyr for himself. Another example of what same may call a martyr is Socrates, however in this case, as well as with Jesus, Christianity was not yet born, and so this pre-Christian martyr can only be seen, as Jesus was, as a model for the Christians. This is referred to in Justin Martyrs second apology; Socrates was charged with the same things that we are.  [9]  Both of these examples perhaps give Christians the idea to carry ou t this heroic action. This then calls for an explanation of how the new meaning of the word martyrdom came about. How did it move away from its original meaning and why? As previously said there is ambiguity as to who the first Martyr was, and hence who invented Martyrdom. We have established the neither Jesus nor Socrates were martyrs, so then we come to the Jewish Maccabees, their relevance is highlighted through the way in which Blandina is likened in Lyons and Vienne to the mother of the seven sons. At this point martyrdom had come to mean what it does today as Professor Baron stated there were born that great exaltation of Christian martyrdom which was to dominate the minds of the jews and chritians for countless generations.  [10]  However, the two terms are clearly linked and may be seen to merge together. As the Apostles were witness to the death of Jesus, they then became venerable due to their everlasting faith, and could at anytime be called upon to deny what was witnessed under penalty of death. As the apostles would never deny their beliefs, they moved from being a witness, to being open to the idea of death, which will lead us on to the controversial topic of voluntary martyrdom. St. John, at the end of the first century, describes martyr as a faithful witness (martus) who was slain among you, where Satan dwelleth (Revelation 2:13). In Bowersocks Martyrdom and Rome he highlights the point from the latter paragraph, that despite the use of the word itself in the New Testament, the meaning is by no means the same. Bowersock believes that it was not until the 2nd Century that the word martyr came to mean what is means today. Even though links can be drawn to earlier events, such as Nero at Rome which followed the great fire in 64, the change and the more relevant events come later. It is suggested by De Ste. Croix that from approximately 112 onwards Christians started to be prosecuted by pagans simply for being Christians the nomen Christianum, and Pliny states in a letter to Trajan that he executed those charged before me with being Christians.  [11]  The definition of the word martyr was emphasised when the title was turned down by the confessions of Lyons, as they did not actually die, and stated They are already martyrs whom Christ has deemed worthy to be taken up in their confession, having sealed their te stimony by their departure; but we are confessors mean and lowly.  [12]   The interesting movement that occurred, that is dissimilar to Jesus, Socrates and the Maccabees was the voluntary martyrdom. Not only were devote Christians willing to give their lives, they actually wanted to. This was something that very much puzzled the Roman Empire, and became interpreted as almost a provocation. But the sincerity was entirely there as proved by Perpetua and Germanicus. Voluntary martyrdom was in fact forbidden by the church, and those being executed voluntarily were said to be considered far less heroic. The bishops of the churches were supposed to refuse to the voluntary martyrs the honour of the name martyr, and this is backed up by a number of sources including Clement of Alexandria, Origen and Lactantius, the canons of the council of Elvira and the passion of Polycarp. Yet despite this, the martyrs were usually seen in high regarded, seen also as heroic figures.it has been said, notably by De Ste. Croix that it was a montanist practice in origin, however he then goes on to suggest that it began far earlier, but there is not sufficient evidence to back this up. Christian Martyrdom was essentially invented to prove the seriousness of the Christian faith. Initially those who were sentenced to death, did so graciously, without hesitation, yet not with the will of that being the case. These were described as glorious examples of resistance to tyrannical authority and painful suffering before unjust judges. Despite the development of martyrdom, and from that the stemming of voluntary martyrdom, it is made clear from Perpetua how difficult, and how much of a dilemma the Christians faced when deciding between sacrificing their beliefs, or their lives. It must be noted that the ambiguity of this invention can be partly resolved when considering that Christian martyrdom stems from Christian theology. Even though the discussion of the invention of martyrdom is centred around the denominations and figures mentioned above, none of the martyrs would have died if they were not following closely their religious beliefs, and obeying what the church required of them. It is impossible to say who invented Christian martyrdom, and I question whether invent is even the correct term to use in this context. The action came about due to devotion and faithfulness to the Christian religion, and thus became almost a tradition, in which followers showed their dedication to Christ and their one God. It was not invented for a particular purpose, but became something of a statement. Its roots are deeply embedded in the Jewish history concerning Jesus and then Socrates, as well as in the lives of St. Stephen the first Martyr and the many other Christian figures who gave their lives to support their faiths. Word Count: 1,950

St. Stanislas Kostka :: essays research papers

St. Stanislas Kostka Born at Rostkovo near Prasnysz, Poland, about October 28, 1550; died at Rome during the night of 14-15 August, 1568. He entered the Society of Jesus at Rome, October 28, 1567, and is said to have foretold his death a few days before it occurred. His father, John Kostka, was a senator of the Kingdom of Poland and Lord of Zakroczym; his mother was Margaret de Drobniy Kryska, the sister and niece of the Dukes Palatine of Masovia and the aunt of the celebrated Chancellor of Poland, Felix Kryski. The marriage was blessed with seven children, of whom Stanislas was the second. His older brother Paul survived him long enough to be present at the celebration of the beatification of Stanislas in 1605. The thought of joining the Society of Jesus had already entered the mind of the saintly young man. It was six months, however, before he ventured to speak of this to the superiors of the Society. At Vienna they hesitated to receive him, fearing the tempest that would probably be raised by his father against the Society, which had just quieted a storm that had broken out on account of other admissions to the Company. Stanislas quickly grasped the situation and formed the plan of applying to the general of the Society at Rome. The distance was five hundred leagues, which had to be made on foot, without equipment, or guide, or any other resources but the precarious charity that might be received on the road. The prospective dangers and humiliations of such a journey, however, did not alarm his courage. On the morning of the day on which he was to carry out his project he called his servant to him early and told him to notify his brother Paul and his tutor in the course of the morning that he would not be back that day to dinner. Then he started, taking the first opportunity to exchange the dress of gentleman for that of a mendicant, which was the only way to escape the curiosity of those he might meet. By nightfall Paul and the tutor comprehended that Stanislas had turned from them as he had threatened. They were seized with a fierce anger, and as the day was ended the fugitive had gained twenty-four hours over them. They started to follow him, but were not able to overtake him; either their exhausted horses refused to go farther, or a wheel of their carriage would break, or, as the tutor frankly declared, they had mistaken the route, having left the city by a St. Stanislas Kostka :: essays research papers St. Stanislas Kostka Born at Rostkovo near Prasnysz, Poland, about October 28, 1550; died at Rome during the night of 14-15 August, 1568. He entered the Society of Jesus at Rome, October 28, 1567, and is said to have foretold his death a few days before it occurred. His father, John Kostka, was a senator of the Kingdom of Poland and Lord of Zakroczym; his mother was Margaret de Drobniy Kryska, the sister and niece of the Dukes Palatine of Masovia and the aunt of the celebrated Chancellor of Poland, Felix Kryski. The marriage was blessed with seven children, of whom Stanislas was the second. His older brother Paul survived him long enough to be present at the celebration of the beatification of Stanislas in 1605. The thought of joining the Society of Jesus had already entered the mind of the saintly young man. It was six months, however, before he ventured to speak of this to the superiors of the Society. At Vienna they hesitated to receive him, fearing the tempest that would probably be raised by his father against the Society, which had just quieted a storm that had broken out on account of other admissions to the Company. Stanislas quickly grasped the situation and formed the plan of applying to the general of the Society at Rome. The distance was five hundred leagues, which had to be made on foot, without equipment, or guide, or any other resources but the precarious charity that might be received on the road. The prospective dangers and humiliations of such a journey, however, did not alarm his courage. On the morning of the day on which he was to carry out his project he called his servant to him early and told him to notify his brother Paul and his tutor in the course of the morning that he would not be back that day to dinner. Then he started, taking the first opportunity to exchange the dress of gentleman for that of a mendicant, which was the only way to escape the curiosity of those he might meet. By nightfall Paul and the tutor comprehended that Stanislas had turned from them as he had threatened. They were seized with a fierce anger, and as the day was ended the fugitive had gained twenty-four hours over them. They started to follow him, but were not able to overtake him; either their exhausted horses refused to go farther, or a wheel of their carriage would break, or, as the tutor frankly declared, they had mistaken the route, having left the city by a

Negative Affects of Social Media Essay

Social media is like a game. Once you learn and get along with how to use these websites you get addicted to it. For example, now I am addicted to social media. Before I was introduced to social media I did all of my homework and was one of the top students in the class. From that moment I became engage to websites such as facebook, tweeter, ooVoo and instagram. It affected my life pessimistically. For instance, these days I can’t stop checking my facebook and instagram. Furthermore, theses days I am missing lot homework on most of my classes do to the escalating expose of social media. So due to these entire dilemma, I believe social media has many negative effect on teens life. see more:essay on social media First, students/teens spent too much time on social media. For example, Jazmin said she spent more time on websites like fb and texting than homework. â€Å"One quarter of teens say they log on to their favorite social media websites 10 or more times each day† (Gordan). Next due to the use of social media students gets lower grades on test and are lacking on during homework because they are busy chatting, texting, video chatting, etc. For example, I asked Jazmin agrees with me saying that she use social media rather than studying for testes or during homework. At last, teens are not going outside, spending time with family and are not active due to the social media. That’s why social media has negative affect on teen’s life. Next, many teens get cyber bullied through social media. For example, in a 2010 survey of students age 11 to 18 administer by the Cyberbulling Research Center, 20% said they had been cyber bullied. Also in sum cases teens make fake accounts a nd cyber bully other through the social media. Furthermore, in the article call â€Å"Cyberbulling’’ it says that member of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender get bullied more then others. For example in the survey it showed that 36.4% of these members got cyberbullied. At last, another negative effect of the social media is that it impairs students/teens writing skills. For example, sometimes when I am writings important paper I instant to use words like u, wat, c and others words in my writing due to using them numerous times in my texting and chatting. After that, teens become nastiest in spelling and using the proper sentence due to the usage of social media. In the article call â€Å" Grades 9-10 Literacy: The Power of New Media Annotated Student work† it says that student not only become appalling at spellings, grammars but also at literatures. I do know there some optimistic used of social media such as asking for homework they missed. But still, they are incorrect because do to social media teens can’t concentrate on their work. For example, they use social media for violence. Next, teens are constantly checking Facebook to see/get involve in things that are happening. So it distracts them from studying, doing schoolwork and others too. At last, the use social media for negative use like cyberbulling. As a result you can see social media has negative affects on teens life. For example, getting addicted, cyberbulling and it affects students writing skills. Furthermore, due to social media teens are lacking in education and being active. These are the reasons how social media is negative. And also I urge parents to check what your kids are doing and try to get involve in your sons and daughters life little more.

Art and Culture Essay

Art and culture are two terms which can never be separated and are deeply interlinked. Art refers to the quality, creation, appearance, or realm, based on aesthetics of what is beautiful, appealing, or is completely out of the ordinary. Art has many facets like theatre, paintings, music and other kinds of visual and abstract art. It has been seen that different cultures have different kinds of art because art of a country always reflects its culture, traditions and norms. The thoughts, ideas, rules & routines and famous signs and symbols common among the people of an area are displayed through art. A particular culture develops gradually and if its components are embedded in a family, generation or several generation this culture becomes permanent and its language and traditions become an imperative part of the society. By language, one does not only mean verbal enunciation of people to communicate but it also means communication through music, poetry, architecture etc. These cultural representatives show both meaning and value of art creation and more deeply the reason and value for the civilization taking place at that time. Each kind of art is an expression; it is the expression of human beings who exist as a part of culture. Therefore, culture and art go side by side and cannot be deemed as completely different phenomena. American culture and art have an old bondage. Pop Art became popular extending from America to all over the world in 1950’s and 60’and instantly became a very popular and widely accepted image of a modern America. Pop Art incorporates hard edges and displays the real life style. Warhol who is considered to be the father of Pop Art created and popularized its concept; pop art is a representative of the cultural aspects of society and is also deemed as abstract expressionism (Mamiya, 1992). The signs, symbols and artifacts represented by Pop Art are based on true American culture rooting from history. Another example is the local cultural activities that take place in the form of theatre, musical shows and dance. The visitors from all over the world come to enjoy the cultural activities at different venues in New York and Chicago such as Dallas Museum of Art, M Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center and the Nasher Sculpture Center (Sherman, 2009). These activities are a true depiction of the American society and portray its traditions, values, norms and preferences in the form of art. References Mamiya, C. J. (1992). Pop art and consumer culture: American super market. CA: University of Texas Press Sherman, L. (2009). America’s Cultural Tourism Capitals. Retrived 21st March 2013 from: http://www.forbes.com/2009/08/20/america-culture-capitals-lifestyle-travel-arts.html

The Doomed Journey of Panfilo de Narvaez in Florida

The Doomed Journey of Panfilo de Narvaez in Florida Panfilo de Narvaez (1470-1528) was born to an upper-class family in Vallenda, Spain. Although he was older than most Spaniards who sought their fortunes in the New World, he nevertheless was extremely active in the early conquest period. He was an important figure in the conquests of Jamaica and Cuba in the years between 1509 and 1512. He acquired a reputation for ruthlessness; Bartolome de Las Casas, who was a chaplain on the Cuba campaign, recounted horrible tales of massacres and chiefs being burned alive. In Pursuit of Cortes In 1518, the governor of Cuba, Diego Velazquez, had sent the young conquistador Hernan Cortes off to Mexico to begin the conquest of the mainland. Velazquez soon regretted his actions, however, and decided to place someone else in charge. He sent Narvaez, with a large force of more than 1,000 Spanish soldiers, to Mexico to take command of the expedition and send Cortes back to Cuba. Cortes, who was in the process of defeating the Aztec Empire, had to leave the recently subdued capital of Tenochtitlan to return to the coast to fight Narvaez. The Battle of Cempoala On May 28, 1520, the forces of the two conquistadores clashed at Cempoala, near present-day Veracruz, and Cortes won. Many of Narvaez’s soldiers deserted before and after the battle, joining Cortes. Narvaez himself was jailed in the port of Veracruz for the next two years, while Cortes retained control of the expedition and the vast wealth that came with it. A New Expedition Narvaez returned to Spain after being released. Convinced that there were more wealthy empires like the Aztecs to the north, he mounted an expedition that was doomed to become one of the most monumental failures in history. Narvaez got permission from King Charles V of Spain to mount an expedition into Florida. He set sail in April 1527 with five ships and about 600 Spanish soldiers and adventurers. Word of the riches earned by Cortes and his men made finding volunteers easy. In April 1528, the expedition landed in Florida, near present-day Tampa Bay. By then, many of the soldiers had deserted, and only about 300 men remained. Narvaez in Florida Narvaez and his men clumsily made their way inland, attacking every tribe they met. The expedition had brought insufficient supplies and survived by pillaging meager Native American storehouses, which caused violent retaliation. The conditions and lack of food caused many in the company to become ill, and within a few weeks, a third of the members of the expedition were severely incapacitated. The going was tough because Florida was then full of rivers, swamps, and forests. The Spanish were killed and picked off by irate natives, and Narvaez made a series of tactical blunders, including frequently dividing his forces and never seeking allies. The Mission Fails The men were dying, picked off individually and in small groups by native attacks. Supplies had run out, and the expedition had alienated every native tribe it had encountered. With no hope to establish any sort of settlement and with no help coming, Narvaez decided to abort the mission and return to Cuba. He had lost touch with his ships and ordered the construction of four large rafts. The Death of Panfilo de Narvaez It is not known for certain where and when Narvaez died. The last man to see Narvaez alive and tell of it was Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, a junior officer of the expedition. He recounted that in their final conversation, he asked Narvaez for help the men on Narvaezs raft were better fed and stronger than those with Cabeza de Vaca. Narvaez refused, basically saying â€Å"every man for himself,† according to Cabeza de Vaca. The rafts were wrecked in a storm and only 80 men survived the sinking of the rafts; Narvaez was not among them. The Aftermath of the Narvaez Expedition The first major incursion into present-day Florida was a complete fiasco. Of the 300 men who landed with Narvaez, only four ultimately survived. Among them was Cabeza de Vaca, the junior officer who had asked for help but received none. After his raft sunk, Cabeza de Vaca was enslaved by a local tribe for several years somewhere along the Gulf Coast. He managed to escape and meet up with three other survivors, and together the four of them returned overland to Mexico, arriving some eight years after the expedition landed in Florida. The animosity caused by the Narvaez expedition was such that it took the Spanish years to establish a settlement in Florida. Narvaez has gone down in history as one of the most ruthless yet incompetent conquistadors of the colonial era.

Free Essays on The Old Man And The Sea

Eighty-four days had passed since Santiago, the old fisherman, had caught a fish, and he was forced to suffer not only the ridicule of younger fishermen, but near-starvation as well. Moreover, Santiago had lost his young companion, a boy named Manolin, whose father had ordered him to leave Santiago in order to work with more successful seamen. But the devoted child still loved Santiago, and each day brought food and bait to his shack, where they indulged in their favorite pastime: talking about the American baseball leagues. The old man's hero was the New York Yankees' Joe DiMaggio. Santiago identified with the ballplayer's skill and discipline, and declared he would like to take the great DiMaggio fishing some time. After visiting one particular afternoon, the boy left Santiago, who fell asleep. Lions immediately filled his dreams. As a boy he had sailed to Africa and had seen lions on the beaches. Now, as an old man, he constantly dreamed of the great and noble beasts. He no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of Great occurrences, nor of great fish, nor fights nor contests of strength, nor of his wife. He only dreamed of places now and of the lions on the beach ... He loved them as he loved the boy. Before dawn of the next day, the fisherman, as usual, hauled his salt-encrusted skiff onto the beach and set out by himself. But today, in hopes of breaking his unlucky streak, he was determined to sail into deep waters, out much farther than the other anglers would go. He followed the sea birds and flying fish; they would tell him b y their movements where the fish congregated. He watched the turtles swimming near his boat. He loved the turtles, "with their elegance and speed... " Most people are Heartless about turtles because a turtle's heart will beat for hours after he has been cut tip and butchered. The old man thought, I have such a heart too ... Early on, Santiago managed to land a tenpound tuna. Th... Free Essays on The Old Man And The Sea Free Essays on The Old Man And The Sea Title: The Old Man and the Sea Author: Ernest Hemingway Genre: Novel Copyright Date: 1952 Setting: Effect of Setting on Characters and Plot: Main Characters: Major Characters Santiago: The hero of the story. He is an old Cuban fisherman who is a perfectionist when it comes to fishing. Despite his precise methods, he has no luck at sea. Santiago wants to be unique: a greater and stranger person than his peers out at sea. He loves baseball and dreams of lions. He is alone, except for the company of Manolin. He is determined to catch one big fish. Manolin: The young boy who is a disciple of Santiago and who takes care of him. His parents prefer that he work with more successful fishermen, but as he becomes his own man, he chooses to be loyal to Santiago. Marlin: The Marlin is the big fish that Santiago desperately wants and needs to catch. It is an awesome fish that impresses the old man. Because of the fish's greatness, he becomes like a brother to Santiago Minor Characters Manolin's Parents: The parents of the young boy. They want their son to abandon Santiago and fish with fishermen who are more successful and will earn more money. Santiago is torn between his duty to them and his loyalty to the old man. Local Fishermen: The fishermen in town who either laugh at or pity Santiago. They are not as precise in technique as the old man, but they catch more fish. Minor Characters: Summary: Plot Summary In a small fishing village in Cuba, Santiago, an old, weathered fisherman has just gone 84 days without catching a fish. On the 85th day, he is determined to catch a big, impressive fish. For years, Santiago has been fishing with a young boy named Manolin. Manolin started fishing with the old man when he was only 5 years old. Santiago is like Manolin's second father, and has taught the young boy everything about fishing. Manolin is extremely loyal to Santiago and makes sure that the old man is always ... Free Essays on The Old Man And The Sea Eighty-four days had passed since Santiago, the old fisherman, had caught a fish, and he was forced to suffer not only the ridicule of younger fishermen, but near-starvation as well. Moreover, Santiago had lost his young companion, a boy named Manolin, whose father had ordered him to leave Santiago in order to work with more successful seamen. But the devoted child still loved Santiago, and each day brought food and bait to his shack, where they indulged in their favorite pastime: talking about the American baseball leagues. The old man's hero was the New York Yankees' Joe DiMaggio. Santiago identified with the ballplayer's skill and discipline, and declared he would like to take the great DiMaggio fishing some time. After visiting one particular afternoon, the boy left Santiago, who fell asleep. Lions immediately filled his dreams. As a boy he had sailed to Africa and had seen lions on the beaches. Now, as an old man, he constantly dreamed of the great and noble beasts. He no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of Great occurrences, nor of great fish, nor fights nor contests of strength, nor of his wife. He only dreamed of places now and of the lions on the beach ... He loved them as he loved the boy. Before dawn of the next day, the fisherman, as usual, hauled his salt-encrusted skiff onto the beach and set out by himself. But today, in hopes of breaking his unlucky streak, he was determined to sail into deep waters, out much farther than the other anglers would go. He followed the sea birds and flying fish; they would tell him b y their movements where the fish congregated. He watched the turtles swimming near his boat. He loved the turtles, "with their elegance and speed... " Most people are Heartless about turtles because a turtle's heart will beat for hours after he has been cut tip and butchered. The old man thought, I have such a heart too ... Early on, Santiago managed to land a tenpound tuna. Th...

Adaptation Model of Nursing Analysis

Adaptation Model of Nursing Analysis Roy’s Adaptation Model One of the most prominent nursing theories is the Adaptation Model of Nursing, developed by Sister Callista Roy. It focuses on the human ability to adapt to environmental stimuli through our set of systems; biological, psychological and social. The main goal of this model is to live adequately by striving for balance. The Roy adaptation model interprets the person as a rounded adaptive system constantly interacting with the external and internal environment, with the goal to maintain integrity. According to (Roy and Andrews, 1999), adaptation refers to â€Å"the process and outcome whereby thinking and feeling persons as individuals or in groups, use conscious awareness and choice to create human and environmental integration†. There are three levels of adaptation described by Roy each representing the condition of the life processes; integrated, compensatory, and compromised life processes (Master, 129). An integrated life process that is lost may change to a compensatory process, which tries to reestablish adaptation. However if the compensatory process is not enough, it leads to compromised processes. There are two types of coping processes in Roy’s model; innate and acquired. Innate coping mechanisms are genetic, while acquired processes are learned. Coping processes are further categorized into applying to individuals; regulator and cognator subsystems. The regulator subsystem is biological responding through chemical, endocrine, and neural means. The body has a natural response to stimuli such as hormones, electrolytes etc. The cognator subsystem acts by four cognitive emotional channels: perceptual and information processing, learning, judgment, and emotion (Masters, 129). These subsystems main goal is to maintain the processes of life; integrated, compensatory or compromised. The input of the individual adaptive system comes from the environment. There are three classes of stimuli that Roy has ident ified. The focal stimulus is what the human is instantly aware of in their consciousness. Contextual stimuli are the other stimuli that contribute to the focal stimulus, but are not the focus of the human awareness. Lastly is the residual stimuli, which has unknown effects to the situation at hand. According to Roy’s model, understanding the health of the patient is based on understanding the environment, the adaptive system, and the scientific and philosophic assumptions. Responses made relative to the human goal of thriving promote wholeness of health. Health is both a process and a state of becoming whole and integrated. Assumptions from adaptation level theory and assumptions from systems theory have been combined into a single set of scientific assumptions. From systems theory, human adaptive systems are intermingling parts that cooperate together. Human adaptive systems are complex multifaceted and respond to myriad environmental stimuli to achieve adaptation. With their ability to adapt to environmental stimuli, humans have the capacity to create changes in the environment (Roy & Andrews, 1999). Drawing on characteristics of creation spirituality, Roy combined the assumptions of humanism and vertivity (common purposefulness of human existence) into a single set of philosophical assumptions. Humanism insists that human experiences are essential to knowing and that it has power in creativity. Vertivity affirms the belief in the purpose, value, and meaning of all human life. Roy defines nursing as a â€Å"health care profession that focuses on human life processes and patterns and emphasizes promotion of health for individuals, families, groups, and society as a whole† (Roy & Andrews, 1999, p.4). Nursing is what expands adaptive abilities and enhances person and environment. Nursing assesses of stimuli and behavior that influence adaptation. Based on these assessments, interventions are made to manage the stimuli. There are two types of nursing, a science and as a practice discipline. As a science, the goal to â€Å"develop a system of knowledge about persons that observes, classifies, and relates the processes by which persons positively affect their health status† (Roy, 1984, pp. 3-4). As a practice discipline one uses the scientific knowledge to promote health through an essential service (Alligood, 2014). Nursing facilitates adaptation by assessing behavior and intervening to promote adaptive abilities and to enhance environment interactions. According to Roy, humans are adaptive creatures. The human system is a whole with parts that work together to pursue a goal. These human systems include both the individual and the group. Humans systems adjust to the environment and in turn, affect the environment, due to their capability in consciousness and meaning. Roy defined the person as the main focus of nursing, the recipient of nursing care, a living, complex, adaptive system with internal processes (cog nator and regulator) acting to maintain adaptation in the four adaptive modes (physiological, self-concept, role function, and interdependence) (Alligood, 2014). â€Å"Health is a state and a process of being and becoming integrated and a whole person. It is a reflection of adaptation, that is, the interaction of the person and the environment† (Andrews & Roy, 1991, p. 21). Adaptation is a process to enhance psychological, physiological, and social integrity. Health can be perceived as a scale from extreme poor health to peak wellness. However both health and illness can co-exist, the goal of health is to cope with illness in a competent way. Health and illness are one inevitable part of the person’s total life experience (Alligood, 2014). When mechanisms for coping prove to be ineffective, illness persists. Through adaption one can achieve proper health. Environment is â€Å"all the conditions, circumstances, and influences surrounding and affecting the developme nt and behavior of persons or groups, with particular consideration of the mutuality of person and earth resources that includes focal, contextual and residual stimuli† (Roy & Andrews, 1999, p. 18). In order for adaptive responses to occur changes in the environment must be observed. These changes could be positive or negative, large or small, both internal and external factors. Mrs. Muriel Crane is a 74 year old female presenting to the emergency room because her breathing has become more difficult and she noted an increase in sputum production. Her family physician referred her to the ER for treatment of an acute exacerbation of COPD, a condition she has had for the last10 years. To summarize Roy’s model of adaption, it focuses on the human ability to adapt to various environmental stimuli, both innately and externally. In context to this model, she has various issues to discuss. These issues must be related to human adaptation to the environment/condition, or can b enefit from this theory. First, her breathing problems are a response to her body not being able to receive the oxygen she requires. Getting her oxygen up is a major focus. She is also suffering from a cough, spewing up thick yellow sputum which also keeps her up at night. She is constantly tired, with no energy for daily activities. Over the last month Mrs. Crane has been losing weight, but has no appetite, as she’s under a lot of stress. With a temperature of 39.2 she is experiencing a fever. During damp cold weather she feels arthritic pain in her knees. Lastly due to these symptoms and her hospital stay she has peripheral muscle wasting and muscle weakness. A key concept within Roy’s model is the idea of health and illness coexisting in the human life. For Mrs. Crane she has experienced a massive drain of energy due to this illness and is unable to participate in her daily activities. This is a major priority as it impedes on her quality of life, and limits the r ate at which she feels better. According to Roy, illness is natural and we must learn to coexist with it. For Mrs. Crane, she has no energy because her body is using it on other needs such as combating infection, or keeping up oxygen levels. To free up energy, a goal she can make is to prioritize her energy spending, as well as making a greater effort to engage in daily activities. By doing this, she can improve her quality of life as well as her psyche, which will improve her healing process. Adaptive behaviors are those that promote the goals of survival and adapting to the environment. However, Mrs. Crane is coughing leading to a lack of sleep. This adaption is negative to her health, and an ineffective behavior. Roy explains in her model that ineffective behaviors need to be recognized and purposely stopped. In order to stop this cough, she needs to take the proper medicines and alternative therapy, which will lead to a better sleep. This in turn will promote the goals of surv ival and healing. When faced with the stress of her illness, Mrs. Crane experiences the regulator subsystem of coping which responds with biological means. The body has a natural response to stimuli such as hormones, in this case cortisol. However she has been a great amount of stress for an extended amount of time, leading to negative effects due to the cortisol release. High amounts of cortisol decreases immunity, and breaks down muscle bone and connective tissue. A goal for Mrs. Crane would be to lower her stress levels in order to better her health.

BizCafe Business Plan Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

BizCafe Business Plan - Coursework Example This business plan takes us through the Never Enough Cafe’s journey since birth to growth. This business has mimicked the production curve throughout its existence. The marketing plan plays a vital role in determining areas of improvement and the appropriate measures. The main aim of any business is to make profits; this is not an exemption, therefore, these strategies aim at improving the status of the business. 1.0 Company description Never Enough Cafe is a small business, which has been in existence for over a month. The main aim of this cafe is profit making, and its mission statement includes â€Å"to ensure that our customer’s professional and courteous service, by selling remarkable coffee at fair prices and maintaining a clean and comfortable space for our customers and staff; to consistently provide our customers with impeccable service by demonstrating warmth, graciousness, efficiency, knowledge, professionalism and integrity in our work, with a focus on styl e and hygiene.† The main objective of the business is to attract customers by offering the best services, with an aim of increasing revenues. This business specializes in only one beverage, which is coffee, but which varies from coffee latte, coffee black to cappuccino. The company is in its growing stages and has 10 employees among which three are managers while the rest are servers. The manager’s salaries are $670 while the servers are paid $9.00 an hour. The business operates six days in a week and recently changed its opening hours to 8.am as opposed to 9.am. The current prices of our coffee are as follows; small cup at $3.00, medium cup at $3.50, whilst the large cup goes for $4.00. This business has adopted the differentiation strategy, which enables it to be unique in terms of its products and services, for instance, by offering a variety of different type of coffee and in different sizes so as to cater for all types of customers. In addition, the cafe possesses a four-cup automatic espresso, which contributes to effectiveness when catering many customers. The cafe is also insured and has adopted a logo, which is visible on the coffee cups. The cafe markets its product via the newspaper at $200 per day and on the radio twice per day at $560. The cafe is located on the main street, therefore targeting a variety of customers, who include university students, the university staff, downtown entrepreneurs, and their clients. 2.0 Market analysis Marketing analysis is used as a tool by businesses aiming at understanding their operating environment better. According to the local labor news, the average manager’s wages is at $635 per week while the server’s wages are at $8.88 per hour. Nevertheless, our cafe pays the employees above the local average rates, such that, servers are paid $9 per hour while managers are paid $670 per week. In addition, the average turnover rate is low in the market as it is at 14%; our cafe has not had majo r issues with turnover as only one server has quit since the business started. We opted to offer our employees on-the-job training, which is cheap and effective. The employee salaries have always been reviewed and increased when necessary, according to Lathan (2009, p.78), motivated employees result to higher performance, which in return increases a company’s productivity. In period six, the customer satisfaction rate was at 54%, while the industry average customer’

Human Resources and Performance Management via Reward Systems Essay

Human Resources and Performance Management via Reward Systems - Essay Example The paper tells that in a business environment that has become increasingly globalized with a wide array of customer services demands and fierce competition between markets, organization performance and productivity has become the central focus of many organizations. Thus the objectives of the modern business organization are inevitably to improve performance with a view to remaining and or becoming competitive. In order to remain or become competitive, organizations are persistently seeking ways to enhance performance. This report intends to demonstrate how performance management via a rewards system can enhance organizational performance. It is first necessary to establish how a performance management can be structured so as to include a rewards system. Thus three of the main components of performance management systems will be evaluated. Ideally, a performance management system begins with performance planning, and branches off into performance appraisal/reviewing followed by feed back/counseling and performance facilitation which is in turn followed by rewarding, performance improvement plans, and potential appraisal. Together these components of performance management systems signify an organization driven by high performance systems if managed effectively and efficiently. Thus activities, practices and policies of any performance management system must be comprised of each of these components. ... Three major components of performance management systems will be evaluated. This will be followed by an evaluation of the link between motivation and performance management. The final part of this report sets out a description and evaluation of a total rewards system linked to performance management. Performance Management Systems In a business environment that has become increasingly globalized with a wide array of customer services demands and fierce competition between markets, organization performance and productivity has become the central focus of many organizations (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). Thus the objectives of the modern business organization are inevitably to improve performance with a view to remaining and or becoming competitive. In order to remain or become competitive, organizations are persistently seeking ways to enhance performance (Becker & Gerhart, 1996). This report intends to demonstrate how performance management via a rewards system can enhance organizational performance. It is first necessary to establish how a performance management can be structured so as to include a rewards system. Thus three of the main components of performance management systems will be evaluated. Ideally, a performance management system begins with performance planning, and branches off into performance appraisal/reviewing followed by feedback/counseling and performance facilitation which is in turn followed by rewarding, performance improvement plans, and potential appraisal (Armstrong, 2005). Together these components of performance management systems signify an organization driven by high performance systems if managed

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 9

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - Essay Example the United States was in no way susceptible, but it had the task of defending its partners as well as bring to a stop the development of nuclear armaments (Ambrose, 1989). President Nixon had the same ideas and he based his goals in ensuring world peace is maintained. After his election into office, there was an increase from American citizens for American troops to be sent back home from foreign missions. Nixon promised American citizens that he will support American allies with resources but not man power. However, the process was delayed as protests became a daily scene in the streets on the United States. In providing a specific case scenario, the number of American troops who died in Vietnam reached 500, 000 (Dallek, 2007). This made citizens even more irritated by Nixon’s regime. Nixon however, launched vietnamisation which was a strategy to pull out American troops in the region, help build a Vietnamese military squad and provide them with weapons and financial resources. He succeeded in this particular quest as he was applauded for successfully ensuring peace in Vietnam and getting American troops back home. Nixon took over American during a time when the nations had a lot of enemies in terms of diplomatic relations. However, the nations also had significant allies Nixon was keen to retain (Ambrose, 1989). On many occasions involving warfare, Nixon was forced to use diplomatic efforts to be able to come up with lasting solutions. For instance, during the invasion of Arab countries in Israel, Nixon realized the significance of having good diplomatic relationships with the Arab countries (Dallek, 2007). Nixon was able to negotiate with Egypt and he convinced them to pull out in the war against Israel. Additionally, Nixon also used diplomatic efforts to solve the China-Pakistan war. In this occasion, Pakistan is an American ally and China a great ally to the Soviet. According to Parmet (1990) the diplomatic relationship between the Soviet and the United

Evaluate the claim that we should seek to abolish imprisonment Essay

Evaluate the claim that we should seek to abolish imprisonment - Essay Example orms of punishment are introduced, according to jurisprudential rational, to control such rate of crime and protect the basic rights of common people within a socio-cultural context. According to the varying degrees regarding seriousness of crime commission, various types of punishments are offered to offenders, namely, â€Å"condemnation, fines, probation, imprisonment, or death† and legislative system of a particular society provides actual directives that what type of punishment can be offered for a specific form of crime. Imprisonment is widely regarded, perhaps, as the â€Å"strongest form of punishment† after death penalty and mostly offered to people accused of culpable offences (Coughlin, 1991, p. 54). Tony Lawson and Joan Garrod have attempted to define imprisonment in the book Dictionary for Sociology, as, â€Å"†¦the incarnation of those convicted of certain types of crime. Also in prison are those held â€Å"on remand,†- i.e. accused of a serious crime and awaiting a trial. Different societies hold different views regarding the purpose of imprisonment, with the result that the proportion of the population in prison at any one time varies widely among different societies† (Lawson, and Garrod, 2001, p. 117-118). This definition becomes important in the context of discussion as it encompasses within its scope both legal and social perspectives. In the first part, the authors have defined what imprisonment is from legal perspective. Second part of the definition focuses on social aspects that purpose and reason for imprisonment differs in different societies; thus, society has an important role to play when it comes to nature of imprisonment or establishing the criteria regarding magnitude of crime so that a person is sentenced for imprisonment. According to magnitude of crime, punishment can be categorized in several forms, namely, capital punishment, imprisonment, probation, fines, restitution and community service, and restorative justice (Gaines, and

General Prologue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

General Prologue - Essay Example Thus Chaucer gets acquainted with different representatives of middle-class social layer. All of them are on their way to Canterbury to pray at a shrine of Saint Thomas Becket (Schwartz). Step by step Chaucer depicts main characters of his Tales. We can see a merchant, a clerk, a knight, a monk, a wife of Bath and other heroes. Chaucer tells about every character in the order, which is appropriate to the social status of heroes. I’d like to pay attention to the Wife of Bath, Alyson. She is an embodiment of an authoritative spouse. This woman has been married five times and tells pilgrims about her tumultuous marriages. She provides bright descriptions of herself comparing herself with a ‘humble loaf of bread’ (Schwartz). In order to justify her numerous marriages Alyson refers to Solomon’s and Abraham’s wives. Five husbands of Alison were different kinds of men, but the most lovable for her was her fifth husband, Jankyn. Their relationships were complicated though they lived together till Jankyn’s death. The Wife of Bath’ tale is a long part of general prologue. In such a way Chaucer makes fun of selfish and egoistical traits of human character. We can see that the author underlines this negative trait as a core of human troubles and turmoil. The authors finishes the general prologue stating that he has â€Å"tyme and space† to narrate his tales. His no tes explain to us that the tales were written some time after the events happened the author is just sharing with us what he remembers about these events and at the same time he shares his personal opinion and attitude towards what he is narrating. Canterbury Tales mean much for the reader. Unlike many other famous literary masterpieces, these Tales disclose the reality of human’s life and can be considered useful for young readers who want to know more about the world around. Canterbury Tales also give very interesting information about the epoch

Privatization of Juvenile Facilities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Privatization of Juvenile Facilities - Essay Example This represented over 30,000 juvenile offenders (Bayer, & Pozen, 2003). In 1974, Congress passed the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act which encouraged the community to develop reasonable alternatives to incarceration. This request saw the adoption of privatization as an appropriate mechanism that could be used for deinstitutionalization. As a result, by 1990, nearly 90 % of states had a minimum of one contract with a private corporation that was non profit. On the other hand, 60% of states had a minimum of one contract with a private corporation for profit to operate a facility for juveniles. Due to the overcrowding experienced in prisons, high costs of operating prisons, and the high cost of building new prisons, many states find privatization a viable option. The issue of privatization of juvenile facilities raises certain important issues. If a state were to privatize its juvenile facilities, which component of the facilities will be most effectively privatized? Suc h that the negative impact of privatization is minimized. Armstrong (2001) notes that the government or the state must retain and continue funding the costs that are associated with incarceration of the delinquents. The private corporation on the other hand, should take care of the programmatic and custodial managerial services. This is an effective approach as it allows the private sector to handle issues that are less sensitive. The state continues to meet the direct costs of incarcerated delinquents. This way the incarcerated juveniles will be able to access critical services like educational programming and quality nutrition. Many of the private corporations are out to make profits. Privatization of the costs of incarceration of the delinquents will see incarcerated delinquents being deprived of essential services as observed in the Oklahoma example. The Office of Juvenile Affairs contracted a for- profit private corporation. This contract was terminated in the year 2002 after c oncerns were raised about the operations of the juvenile facility. The contract was also terminated in an effort to cut down the budget of the Office of Juvenile Affairs. The OCCY (Oklahoma Commission on Children and Youth) raised concerns about the absence of educational programs and proper nutrition for the juveniles (Office of Juvenile Affairs, 2010). The state stands a better chance to effectively manage juvenile facilities. This is because the state is a non profit organization that will emphasize on delivering the essential services to the incarcerated juveniles as opposed to maintaining the bottom line and cutting costs at the detriment of the incarcerated juveniles. Today, it is a fact that many states consider privatization of juvenile facilities a viable option. Despite the negative aspects closely associated with privatization of these facilities, states continue to privatize the facilities in an effort to reduce overcrowding and minimize operation costs. What can then be done to ensure that the interests of the public are preserved by the privatized juvenile facilities? One good and effective approach is the setting up of a state agency mandated with the constant evaluation and monitoring of state juvenile facilities and the juvenile programs. These agencies will have the ability to conduct random visits to the privatized juvenile facilities and assess conditions of the facilities and state of juveniles and staff. In this way,

General Prologue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

General Prologue - Essay Example Thus Chaucer gets acquainted with different representatives of middle-class social layer. All of them are on their way to Canterbury to pray at a shrine of Saint Thomas Becket (Schwartz). Step by step Chaucer depicts main characters of his Tales. We can see a merchant, a clerk, a knight, a monk, a wife of Bath and other heroes. Chaucer tells about every character in the order, which is appropriate to the social status of heroes. I’d like to pay attention to the Wife of Bath, Alyson. She is an embodiment of an authoritative spouse. This woman has been married five times and tells pilgrims about her tumultuous marriages. She provides bright descriptions of herself comparing herself with a ‘humble loaf of bread’ (Schwartz). In order to justify her numerous marriages Alyson refers to Solomon’s and Abraham’s wives. Five husbands of Alison were different kinds of men, but the most lovable for her was her fifth husband, Jankyn. Their relationships were complicated though they lived together till Jankyn’s death. The Wife of Bath’ tale is a long part of general prologue. In such a way Chaucer makes fun of selfish and egoistical traits of human character. We can see that the author underlines this negative trait as a core of human troubles and turmoil. The authors finishes the general prologue stating that he has â€Å"tyme and space† to narrate his tales. His no tes explain to us that the tales were written some time after the events happened the author is just sharing with us what he remembers about these events and at the same time he shares his personal opinion and attitude towards what he is narrating. Canterbury Tales mean much for the reader. Unlike many other famous literary masterpieces, these Tales disclose the reality of human’s life and can be considered useful for young readers who want to know more about the world around. Canterbury Tales also give very interesting information about the epoch

Phil .Literature Essay Example for Free

Phil .Literature Essay Philippine literary production during the American Period in the Philippines was spurred by two significant developments in education and culture. One is the introduction of free public instruction for all children of school age and two, the use of English as medium of instruction in all levels of education in public schools. Free public education made knowledge and information accessible to a greater number of Filipinos. Those who availed of this education through college were able to improve their social status and joined a good number of educated masses who became part of the country’s middle class. The use of English as medium of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American modes of thought, culture and life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature produced but also in the psyche of the country’s educated class. It was this educated class that would be the wellspring of a vibrant Philippine Literature in English. Philippine literature in English, as a direct result of American colonization of the country, could not escape being imitative of American models of writing especially during its period of apprenticeship. The poetry written by early poets manifested studied attempts at versification as in the following poem which is proof of the poet’s rather elementary exercise in the English language: Vacation days at last are here, And we have time for fun so dear, All boys and girls do gladly cheer, This welcomed season of the year. In early June in school we’ll meet; A harder task shall we complete And if we fail we must repeat That self same task without retreat. We simply rest to come again To school where boys and girls obtain The Creator’s gift to men Whose sanguine hopes in us remain. Vacation means a time for play For young and old in night and day My wish for all is to be gay, And evil none lead you astray- Juan F. Salazar Philippines Free Press, May 9, 1909| The poem was anthologized in the first collection of poetry in English, Filipino Poetry, edited by Rodolfo Dato (1909 – 1924). Among the poets featured in this anthology were Proceso Sebastian Maximo Kalaw, Fernando Maramag, Leopoldo Uichanco, Jose Ledesma, Vicente Callao, Santiago Sevilla, Bernardo Garcia, Francisco Africa, Pablo Anzures, Carlos P. Romulo, Francisco Tonogbanua, Juan Pastrana, Maria Agoncillo, Paz Marquez Benitez, Luis Dato and many others. Another anthology, The English German Anthology of Poetsedited by Pablo Laslo was published and covered poets published from 1924-1934 among whom were Teofilo D. Agcaoili, Aurelio Alvero, Horacio de la Costa, Amador T. Daguio, Salvador P. Lopez, Angela Manalang Gloria, Trinidad Tarrosa, Abelardo Subido and Jose Garcia Villa, among others. A third pre-war collection of poetry was edited by Carlos Bulosan, Chorus for America: Six Philippine Poets. The six poets in this collection were Jose Garcia Villa, Rafael Zulueta da Costa, Rodrigo T. Feria, C. B. Rigor, Cecilio Baroga and Carlos Bulosan. In fiction, the period of apprenticeship in literary writing in English is marked by imitation of the style of storytelling and strict adherence to the craft of the short story as practiced by popular American fictionists. Early short story writers in English were often dubbed as the Andersons or Saroyans or the Hemingways of Philippine letters. Leopoldo Yabes in his study of the Philippine short story in English from 1925 to 1955 points to these models of American fiction exerting profound influence on the early writings of story writers like Francisco Arcellana, A. E. Litiatco, Paz Latorena. . When the University of the Philippines was founded in 1908, an elite group of writers in English began to exert influence among the culturati. The U. P. Writers Club founded in 1926, had stated that one of its aims was to enhance and propagate the language of Shakespeare. In 1925, Paz Marquez Benitez short story, Dead Stars was published and was made the landmark of the maturity of the Filipino writer in English. Soon after Benitez, short story writers began publishing stories no longer imitative of American models. Thus, story writers like Icasiano Calalang, A. E. Litiatco, Arturo Rotor, Lydia Villanueva, Paz Latorena , Manuel Arguilla began publishing stories manifesting both skilled use of the language and a keen Filipino sensibility. This combination of writing in a borrowed tongue while dwelling on Filipino customs and traditions earmarked the literary output of major Filipino fictionists in English during the American period. Thus, the major novels of the period, such as the Filipino Rebel, by Maximo Kalaw, and His Native Soil by Juan C. Laya, are discourses on cultural identity, nationhood and being Filipino done in the English language. Stories such as How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife by Manuel Arguilla scanned the scenery as well as the folkways of Ilocandia while N. V. M. Gonzales’s novels and stories such as Children of the Ash Covered Loam, present the panorama of Mindoro, in all its customs and traditions while configuring its characters in the human dilemma of nostalgia and poverty. Apart from Arguilla and Gonzales, noted fictionists during the period included Francisco Arcellana, whom Jose Garcia Villa lauded as a genius storyteller, Consorcio Borje, Aida Rivera, Conrado Pedroche, Amador Daguio, Sinai Hamada, Hernando Ocampo, Fernando Maria Guerrero. Jose Garcia Villa himself wrote several short stories but devoted most of his time to poetry. In 1936, when the Philippine Writers League was organized, Filipino writers in English began discussing the value of literature in society. Initiated and led by Salvador P. Lopez, whose essays on Literature and Societyprovoked debates, the discussion centered on proletarian literature, i. e. , engaged or committed literature versus the art for art’s sake literary orientation. But this discussion curiously left out the issue of colonialism and colonial literature and the whole place of literary writing in English under a colonial set-up that was the Philippines then. With Salvador P. Lopez, the essay in English gained the upper hand in day to day discourse on politics and governance. Polemicists who used to write in Spanish like Claro M. Recto, slowly started using English in the discussion of current events even as newspaper dailies moved away from Spanish reporting into English. Among the essayists, Federico Mangahas had an easy facility with the language and the essay as genre. Other noted essayists during the period were Fernando Maramag, Carlos P. Romulo , Conrado Ramirez. On the other hand, the flowering of a vibrant literary tradition due to historical events did not altogether hamper literary production in the native or indigenous languages. In fact, the early period of the 20th century was remarkable for the significant literary output of all major languages in the various literary genre. It was during the early American period that seditious plays, using the form of the zarsuwela, were mounted. Zarsuwelistas Juan Abad, Aurelio Tolentino ,Juan Matapang Cruz. Juan Crisostomo Sotto mounted the classics like Tanikalang Ginto, Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas and Hindi Ako Patay, all directed against the American imperialists. Patricio Mariano’s Anak ng Dagat and Severino Reyes’s Walang Sugat are equally remarkable zarsuwelas staged during the period. On the eve of World War II, Wilfredo Maria Guerrero would gain dominance in theatre through his one-act plays which he toured through his mobile theatre. Thus, Wanted a Chaperone and The Forsaken Housebecame very popular in campuses throughout the archipelago. The novel in Tagalog, Iloko, Hiligaynon and Sugbuanon also developed during the period aided largely by the steady publication of weekly magazines like the Liwayway, Bannawag and Bisaya which serialized the novels. Among the early Tagalog novelists of the 20th century were Ishmael Amado, Valeriano Hernandez Pena, Faustino Aguilar, Lope K. Santos and Lazaro Francisco. Ishmael Amado’s Bulalakaw ng Pag-asa published in 1909 was one of the earliest novels that dealt with the theme of American imperialism in the Philippines. The novel, however, was not released from the printing press until 1916, at which time, the author, by his own admission and after having been sent as a pensionado to the U. S. , had other ideas apart from those he wrote in the novel. Valeriano Hernandez Pena’s Nena at Neneng narrates the story of two women who happened to be best of friends as they cope with their relationships with the men in their lives. Nena succeeds in her married life while Neneng suffers from a stormy marriage because of her jealous husband. Faustino Aguilar published Pinaglahuan, a love triangle set in the early years of the century when the workers movement was being formed. The novel’s hero, Luis Gatbuhay, is a worker in a printery who isimprisoned for a false accusation and loses his love, Danding, to his rival Rojalde, son of a wealthy capitalist. Lope K. Santos, Banaag at Sikat has almost the same theme and motif as the hero of the novel, Delfin, also falls in love with a rich woman, daughter of a wealthy landlord. The love story of course is set also within the background of development of the worker’s trade union movement and throughout the novel, Santos engages the readers in lengthy treatises and discourses on socialism and capitalism. Many other Tagalog novelists wrote on variations of the same theme, i. e. , the interplay of fate, love and social justice. Among these writers are Inigo Ed Regalado, Roman Reyes, Fausto J. Galauran, Susana de Guzman, Rosario de Guzman-Lingat, Lazaro Francisco, Hilaria Labog, Rosalia Aguinaldo, Amado V. Hernandez. Many of these writers were able to produce three or more novels as Soledad Reyes would bear out in her book which is the result of her dissertation, Ang Nobelang Tagalog (1979). Among the Iloko writers, noted novelists were Leon Pichay, who was also the region’s poet laureate then, Hermogenes Belen, and Mena Pecson Crisologo whose Mining wenno Ayat ti Kararwa is considered to be the Iloko version of a Noli me Tangere. In the Visayas, Magdalena Jalandoni and Ramon Muzones would lead most writers in writing the novels that dwelt on the themes of love, courtship, life in the farmlands, and other social upheavals of the period. Marcel Navarra wrote stories and novels in Sugbuhanon. Poetry in all languages continued to flourish in all regions of the country during the American period. The Tagalogs, hailing Francisco F. Balagtas as the nation’s foremost poet invented the balagtasan in his honor. Thebalagtasan is a debate in verse, a poetical joust done almost spontaneously between protagonists who debate over the pros and cons of an issue. The first balagtasan was held in March 1924 at the Instituto de Mujeres, with Jose Corazon de Jesus and Florentino Collantes as rivals, bubuyog (bee) and paru-paro (butterfly) aiming for the love of kampupot (jasmine). It was during this balagtasan that Jose Corazon de Jesus, known as Huseng Batute, emerged triumphant to become the first king of the Balagtasan. Jose Corazon de Jesus was the finest master of the genre. He was later followed by balagtasistas, Emilio Mar Antonio and Crescenciano Marquez, who also became King of the Balagtasan in their own time. As Huseng Batute, de Jesus also produced the finest poems and lyrics during the period. His debates with Amado V. Hernandez on the political issue of independence from America and nationhood were mostly done in verse and are testament to the vitality of Tagalog poetry during the era. Lope K. Santos, epic poem, Ang Panggingera is also proof of how poets of the period have come to master the language to be able to translate it into effective poetry. The balagtasan would be echoed as a poetical fiesta and would be duplicated in the Ilocos as thebukanegan, in honor of Pedro Bukaneg, the supposed transcriber of the epic, Biag ni Lam-ang; and theCrissottan, in Pampanga, in honor of the esteemed poet of the Pampango, Juan Crisostomo Sotto. In 1932, Alejandro G. Abadilla , armed with new criticism and an orientation on  modernist poetry would taunt traditional Tagalog poetics with the publication of his poem, Ako ang Daigdig. Abadilla’s poetry began the era of modernism in Tagalog poetry, a departure from the traditional rhymed, measured and orally recited poems. Modernist poetry which utilized free or blank verses was intended more for silent reading than oral delivery. Noted poets in Tagalog during the American period were Julian Cruz Balmaceda, Florentino Collantes, Pedro Gatmaitan, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Benigno Ramos, Inigo Ed. Regalado, Ildefonso Santos, Lope K.  Santos, Aniceto Silvestre, Emilio Mar. Antonio, Alejandro Abadilla and Teodoro Agoncillo. Like the writers in English who formed themselves into organizations, Tagalog writers also formed the Ilaw at Panitik, and held discussions and workshops on the value of literature in society. Benigno Ramos, was one of the most politicized poets of the period as he aligned himself with the peasants of the Sakdal Movement. Fiction in Tagalog as well as in the other languages of the regions developed alongside the novel. Most fictionists are also novelists. Brigido Batungbakal , Macario Pineda and other writers chose to dwell on the vicissitudes of life in a changing rural landscape. Deogracias Del Rosario on the other hand, chose the city and the emerging social elite as subjects of his stories. He is considered the father of the modern short story in Tagalog Among the more popular fictionists who emerged during the period are two women writers, Liwayway Arceo and Genoveva Edroza Matute, considered forerunners in the use of light fiction, a kind of story telling that uses language through poignant rendition. Genoveva Edroza Matute’s Ako’y Isang Tinig and Liwayway Arceo’s Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa have been used as models of fine writing in Filipino by teachers of composition throughout the school system. Teodoro Agoncillo’s anthology 25 Pinakamahusay na Maiikling Kuwento (1945) included the foremost writers of fiction in the pre-war era. The separate, yet parallel developments of Philippine literature in English and those in Tagalog and other languages of the archipelago during the American period only prove that literature and writing in whatever language and in whatever climate are able to survive mainly through the active imagination of writers. Apparently, what was lacking during the period was for the writers in the various languages to come together, share experiences and come to a conclusion on the elements that constitute good writing in the Philippines.

Causes and consequences of childhood poverty

Causes and consequences of childhood poverty Anyone doing background research into the causes of child poverty will soon learn that parental income is only one of a large network of interrelated factors. To name a few; political, communal, environmental, and societal influences all play a role. As an example consider that; with the ever progressive move from a widespread agricultural, to a more localised industrial society, the number of jobs in many areas has decreased severely. And so the average number of non-educated workmen (or women) has subsequently decreased also. More and more Britains are joining the ranks of the poor each day (roughly 2,000). And with parents out of work and not earning, children will suffer as a result. Every day 1 in every 4 children is born into poverty. (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1995) This can lead to a number of consequences in children, which follows with them throughout adolescence and into adulthood. For example, children who grow up in families with a low income are more likely to experience mental health problems, and more likely to develop unhealthily. Greg Duncan found associations between poverty and poor health, cognitive development, behaviour, emotional well being and academic achievement. He also found that pregnant mothers who have insufficient resources such as food and warmth are 1.7 times more likely to give birth to a low weight baby, that child is then 2 times more likely to drop out of school, and 3.1 times more likely have an out of wed-lock birth (Duncan 1997). Although short term poverty can be overcome and the effects are reversible, long term poverty can be destructive on a childs life. Duncan found that children who had experienced 4-5 years of their early years of life in poverty, achieved a full 9 year decline on intelligence test scores compared to children from healthy backgrounds (Duncan 1997). The standards of living associated with children from poor families can have a negative effect on their health. For example, they are more vulnerable to asthma due to poor ventilation, as well as pneumonia due to poor insulation. Interestingly, they are also more vulnerable to developing obesity since a high carbohydrate, processed diet is the cheaper option. Those children are often excluded from participating in social activities, through both financial disadvantages as well as feeling the pressure of social stigma which can develop from having to dress inappropriately, or through receiving charity food, books, furniture and other necessities. It leads to a loss of self esteem, can be de-motivating, leads to less elevation after the simplest of pleasures, and poor ability to cope with stressful situations. Not only are they more likely to develop psychological problems as a result, these effects last longer than in those who are well off. And this leads to a vicious cycle of depression, leading to increased likelihood of a stressful event, leading to further depression. In Novaks (1995) view, this can lead to long term, irreversible changes in personality, such as; self defeatist attitudes, hopelessness, helplessness, low motivation, low drive, bitterness, aggressiveness and anti social personality disorder. Children with the latter are seen to be impulsive, have high sensation seeking, but without sense of morals or justice. It is often associated with young offenders, school drop outs, and those serving long term sentences. For these reasons, it is necessary for social workers; to get into family homes, assess their state of living, their needs, risk factors, problems, difficulties and anything else that is helpful for them to make an accurate evaluation, and to give them a better understanding. Late interventions can be damaging, for the longer things are kept untreated the harder they are to change. It is important that children are given opportunities in life to maximise their potential and make a contribution to society. Without the proper gui dance and support, they are likely to sink further and further. So it is clear that help is required. There has long been argument that to tackle poverty, social work (SW) would do best to position itself in and against the state. Workers are known to follow law, policy, the rules and regulations of agencies etc, whilst at the same time assuming a flexible role in relation to the safeguarding and supporting of individuals and families. (Bailey and Brake, 1975; Corrigan and Leonard, 1978; Bolger et al., 1981; Becker and MacPherson, 1988; Adams et al., 1998) Childhood poverty holds great relevance for social workers for it defines their very existence. If the role of social workers is to promote well being in the community, and to help young individuals achieve their potential and to function in society, then those in poverty will be the people who need help most. The Poverty and Social Exclusion Survey (PSE Survey, Joseph Rowntree Foundation 1999), which collected a number of individuals portraying an average society, found that 28% of the population were in poverty. Each of them were presented with 52 cards, each revealing an object or activity, such as central heating, a computer, going to the cinema. They were instructed to form two piles; one for items they believed were vital for living, the other for those which were not. For all those items where the majority voted them to be vital, researchers concluded that every person should have at least these in their lives. Social workers may use this as a base line when assessing families, and when children lack any (or all) of these so called necessities (i.e. are in poverty) then help should be provided; for without it, children will likely grow up depressed, suicidal or conversely, aggressive and violent. Children are vulnerable to feelings of hopelessness due to this lack of necessities.A build up of long term worries accompanying a loss of control combined with a sense of dependence, is likely to lead to distress. Chronic anxiety and even depression is not uncommon, which can be exacerbated by an oppressive society. Children from poorer backgrounds are well recognised as they are the ones who do not go on school trips, may dress differently to the rest, not have the correct equipment in lessons, have a more definable smell (not a pleasant one) etc. For those who spend time with such children it is likely they will be excluded from social groups as a result; for they become associated with the outsider and so they themselves are now too an outsider. Society recognises and treats differently any person (adults too) who stands out for whatever reason good or bad. Of course they are no different from the next person; however it is because others see them as different that they are made to feel paranoid. Paranoid that wherever they are people are staring at them, talking about them, thinking all sorts of thoughts. It is enough to cause any child, adult, man or woman huge distress and can affect their ability to be trusting around complete strangers. Constantly obsessing over ones situation will inevitably drain a child of their strength and make them feel weak, which subsequently will increase the level of stress felt. Here can be seen a vicious cycle, one which is hard to recover from without the appropriate help. Furthermore, it is often the case that parents are made to feel just as bad, if not worse. The negativity that radiates off of a child is bound to have implications, especially when he/she cannot have things that all their friends can. Parents have failed as providers and this can lead to a loss of motivation and of despair. So, childhood poverty causes a knock on effect for the rest of the family, and therefore makes it more probable they will seek social services aid. For example, schoolyard bullying can decrease a childs self esteem and affect their ability to form secure, long term relationships. This can lead to turmoil between parents and children, for parents will feel they have lost family connections. As a result, they become depressed and will seek guidance in parenting techniques. Another example would be a child whose parent cannot afford to buy them nice things such as clothes, toys or school equipment. Daily exposure to those who do have such possessions is likely to cause the child jealousy and envy; both at those children who take luxuries for granted, and also at their parents for not being able to provide. Because of the psychological issues that this can lead to, it is likely the child grows up with a desire to steal, spawned from a lifetime of unfulfilment. If they however, grow up with certain morals and choose not to steal, it is still possible that they resort to drugs/and or alcohol as a means of coping. Coping with the consuming hatred and loathe of society that has become them. Families in poverty are less able to provide for themselves, and so there is large chance that children will have to be taken away into care. Thus, a great deal of social workers time is spent within and around those in poverty (Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1995; Becker 1997; Smale et. al. 2000; Social Exclusion Unit, 2004). Childhood poverty can lead to severe ramifications, both physical and mental, some of which people recover from in time while others can be long lasting. It is considered the universal belief poverty is as much a cause as well as an effect of mental health problems (Langner Michael, 1963). Evidence for this comes from impoverished families from lower class areas. Not only are these areas receiving low government funding they also have little support from neighbouring councils; research shows that these areas have the largest number of children with mental health problems (Department of Health, 1999b). It is clear that the linearity between poverty and wellbeing is long winded. Two possible theories however have met support, both social causation (breeder) (SC) and social selection (drift) (SS). SS describes how the accumulation of adolescents suffering mental issues, who live in poor areas, is the result of a continuous drifting towards the lower spectrum of education and while losing contact with social networks. In contrast, SC describes how a neglected socio-economic climate can have negative consequences on childhood well being to start with. From this it is to be concluded that: poor children have lifelong experience living in high risk areas, risk defined as: high chance of unemployment, growing up to rely on benefits, of teenage pregnancies, families separated, crime, street violence, rape, vandalism, malnutrition, obesity etc. Those at high risk are more likely to experience mental problems because their minds are already overburdened with every day worry. Furthermore, those at high risk are less likely to be treated for their illness because the local medical facilities are of low quality, have fewer staff and are constantly over worked. Child poverty therefore starts within neglected communities and leads to a number of psychological issues. A further difficulty is that the increase in mentally disturbed individuals can further exacerbate the ability to cope in others. That is, exposure to stressors causes stress, therefore numbers are constantly rising. There is large evidence for a correlation between low income and lack of support, and increased probability of contracting mood disorder. According to SC, the most contributory factor is the mental strain which results from all those issues associated with poverty so far mentioned, for example misfortune or wretchedness, death or separation within the family. While SS explains those born with a predisposition towards developing mood disorders will drift to such low stances, and be unable to crawl back upwards (Jarvis, 1971). Researchers found that when children were taken from their homes and placed into the care of middle class families then the number of those children who subsequently developed mood, or any other form of mental disorder subsequently reduced. This proves that economic status (ES) is an important factor, however it is likely to be the case ES leads to numerous other contributing factors rather than being sole contributor (Bruce Hoff, 1994). Factors include; access to a good education, support from extended family members, healthy living and nourishment, praise and encouragement from parents, etc. I spoke of psychological issues that rise from deprivation. It is a sad fact that children in poverty are often the topic of conversation among others. They are ridiculed, gossiped about, and excluded from social gatherings and out of school activities. It is as if the impoverished are viewed as if they have the plague. Common descriptions, taken from national surveys include words such as lazy, worthless, inferior, and undeserving. This misconception of the poor being the cause for their own predicament, not only removes any possible blame from neglected political responsibilities (which contribute largely), but also creates what psychologists termed a self fulfilling prophecy. This theory is based on the belief that beliefs shape and influence actions. By this one means; those who are seen as inferior are likely to be treated as inferior. So much so that they actually become inferior because of the lack of social support available. Children are particularly vulnerable to the influe nce of their social networks, because they are still developing and creating identities for themselves. The idea of a looking glass self is of relevance here also (Cooley 1902), which theorises that childrens self concepts are based on what others portray. There is high chance that their actual and their perceived self identity become misconstrued, if and when evidence from external sources supports the latter. They familiarise with the concept that they are weak individuals, and the negative emotions that accompany this such as self doubt, or guilt. It is important to recognise the relevance here for social workers, because this part of society categorised as lower class citizens will benefit the most from services such as child support, child therapy, connexions, EMA, every child matters and so on. And so in response to all this, SW agencies have implemented numerous partnership schemes; the women, infant and children (WIC) nutrition programme for example, which is designed to get pregnant women and children under 5 eating more healthily, Head Start provides low cost day care to children from families earning less than the 60% threshold of the average family, and many areas now even have schemes to provide low cost/free health insurance for children of all ages. It is up to the SW to assess families/individuals and to determine their eligibility for government aid. For those who are suffering from mental health as a result of poverty, SWs are able to put them in touch with professionals who can help and advise. For those who have very few or none of the necessities from the PSE Survey SWs can organise for clubs where the children can go meet peers and to join in social activities. For parents who have racked up a series of debt SWs are able to help them devise a set of preliminary steps in a certain time period resulting in a more secure financial situation (See Task Centred Practice). Clients often give off negative reviews of SW because it has failed to be of any use with real concerns; state of housing, living, etc. But task centred practice can actually be therapeutic, because it is the client who becomes the changing agent, deciding which problems they want to tackle and in what order. By using this, service providers are employing a learning experience. One which relies on both self growth and skills development, whilst addressing the more important issues. But what issues should the SW investigate first? It would be a logical idea to get right back to the start and look at what caused the families decline into poverty. Here lies a problem however, for there are different theories on what the main area of focus should be; some theories blame the individual while others focus on the failings of society. Because of this conflict in ideas it can prove difficult for SWs to accurately make assessments, or come to an agreement with each other when conducting a review. Below are a number of theories on the causes of poverty, to give an idea of these so mentioned conflicts. Firstly, explanations can be fit into three main areas; functionalist, individualistic, and Structural (Marxist). So to start, functionalists focus on the idea that any form of poverty, be it adult, child or both, proves necessary, for without it society would not govern properly. Naturally such a statement has spawned a great deal of controversy; however the theory is conceivable because it is based on logistics. Society is viewed on a grander scale than simply the here and now. And so by applying somewhat of a utilitarianistic approach, rather than considering individuals, it looks at the whole picture. Philosophers such as Herbert Gans (1971) have made contributions to this, suggesting that poverty benefits the non poor and also the rich and powerful, who therefore have a vested interest in maintaining poverty. He further suggested 5 reasons why he believed poverty is acceptable. There will always be a need for individuals to fit the jobs seen as dirty, demeaning, and without prospects. Those in poverty would rather do these than starve. Those born into poverty will grow up to replace their parents and so the cycle continues. Industries require minimum wage (or lower) work staff in order to maintain profit margins. Those in poverty are generally of low/no qualification status and so are not liable to receive higher pay. Those born into poverty generally receive poorer education than most and so are just as unlikely to receive desirable qualifications as did their parents. Without poverty, there would be a loss of jobs for those individuals who strive to combat poverty, such as social workers. A large proportion of social work revolves around work with children, so if all child poverty was resolved then many social workers would find it is they who are in need of support. Furthermore, it would also reduce the profits of wholesalers who rely on the desperation of those in poverty. Children often find there is little in the form of food at home, and so any money they have goes towards buying whatever is cheapest from stores. Poverty provides a measure of comparison for those of low opinion of their situation, and works to reassure them that there will always be people worse off than they themselves. This is true for all age groups. The media uses those in poverty as scapegoats whenever anything goes wrong in society, such as incidents of crime, rape or violence. With no one to speak out for them, the blame resides. Children are seen as vandals, and so by putting the blame on them the media is protecting societies own mistakes. Gans makes it clear that he does support poverty; he states that Phenomena like poverty can be eliminated only when they become dysfunctional for the affluent or powerful, or when the powerless can obtain enough power to change society. From looking at this, one may conclude that the reason for child poverty is because people are allowing it to happen in the first place. An increasing number of adult workers are being rid of the opportunity to earn a stable income, and so their families will suffer as a consequence. Although this not explain what the actual cause is, it does give us an understanding of why child poverty has become such a widespread issue, and why not more has been done to prevent it. Individualists are of the opinion that people are responsible for their circumstances, and have devised several theories of their own. Firstly is the idea of culture, which draws from the research of Oscar Lewis (1966) on Puerto Rican and Mexican families. He acknowledged that children are brought up to appreciate certain values, which they identify with themselves and in time teach their own offspring thus continuing the cycle. And so for those families in poverty, who have low self esteem, motivation, a sense of helplessness etc, they will pass on their negative attitudes through each generation. They will also pass on (through learning and modelling) their negative behaviours, such as drinking, violence, staying at home and not finding work, adultery, divorce, etc. And so this creates a culture of poverty, the fundamental cause being family (specifically parental) influences on their children. Lewis has been challenged because he does not offer a suggestion as to what causes poverty to begin with. Furthermore, it was suggested that children in poverty are no different in terms of beliefs, values, or personalities than those from middle or upper class families. The differences there are, are between income, opportunities for skills, learning and development. And so the alternative suggestion is that the so called culture of poverty is a result of responses of living that parents bring to their children. Secondly is the idea of a cycle of deprivation, which is based on the works of Sir Keith Joseph (1970). He suggested that the causes of poverty stem beyond social status, and move into the domain of family problems. By this Sir Keith was referring to, for example cognitive skills, social skills, personality, health and development, etc. Now consider human relationships, what attracts people? More often than not we search for those who hold similarities to ourselves. Therefore, children in poverty, with their existing family problems, will grow up to form relationships with those who similarly have grown up in poverty and have their own family problems. The resulting offspring from such couples will inevitably follow the same patterns of development and hold similar preferences once they reach adulthood themselves. And so the cycle is endless. Child poverty results from both parents growing up in a relatively similar way. Sir Keith has been challenged just like Lewis, for not explaining how poverty actually starts, but also because it was suggested that not all children end up like their parents, and a number of them can in fact escape the cycle. Opportunities may arise for children that did not arise for their parents, they may form relationships with different kinds of people, or they may show a compassion for achieving that, although did not come from either parent, was just good fortune. And finally is the concept of underclass, which Jones and Novak(1999) describe as a brutal victim-blaming theory. They went on to write how poverty is caused by peoples behaviours and not their circumstances. For example there are many who go through periods of unemployment, are made redundant from current jobs, or who lose money due to household repairs, hospital bills, child support, etc. But of those people, not all of them sink into deprivation, the majority pick themselves up and go on to find something else, or look for support from friends and family until something comes along. Novak and Jones saw the problem to be those who come to rely on income support as a way of living. They were even more so concerned with the children who grow up in impoverished families, learning destructive values and beliefs and growing up to become delinquents. For these, poverty will continue across generations to come. Arguments against the underclass concept revolve around the fact that it negates consideration of structural factors as a cause of poverty, and the lack of evidence to support any of the suggestions made. Despite the criticisms to Individualistic theories, they still hold a high power in modern society. Politicians like Tony Blair for example have stated: This cycle of deprivation is bad for everyone. But it is particularly unfair for children who miss out on opportunities because they inherit the disadvantage faced by their parents, so their life chances are determined by where they come from rather than who they are. The final theory looks at structural explanations for child poverty, primarily directed at the economic standards for any area, child development services on offer, and various other components which form the foundations for living. Supporters of this view takes a Marxist approach; that a class system is necessary, for those at the higher end rely on those at the lower end to provide them with work staff, who they exploit and employ on menial wages. And so there will always be poverty, well at least until capitalism is defeated. Or when society moves towards equality of all its members irrespective of their situation and/or upbringing. Such a concept seems unlikely, as it lacks a sense of fairness to those who see themselves as more deserving. Although it is a misconception that those people in poverty have brought it upon themselves, there is a grain of truth in the matter. The actuality is that those well off have earned it, through hard work and good business sense, while many of those in poverty never managed to do well in school, missed out on opportunities, and failed to achieve. Child poverty results from a continuation of generations of un-achievers, and so there will always be able bodies to recruit into the unprofessional workforce. Marxists go on further to suggest that SW is another of lifes necessities, because social workers ensure that poverty is kept stable. They argue that SW does not aim to cure poverty, nor does it aim to remove people from their impoverished lives. Rather, SW looks to protect the well being of individuals and keeps them from distressing and becoming incapable of work. To do this, workers take service users focus away from blaming the system, and persuade them to look at faults of their own, their shortcomings and their failures. By doing this, SW manages to halt any challenge to the system that individuals may pose such as groups forming who speak out against the oppressors. In conclusion, there are numerous causes for child poverty, but at its roots the government has stated that worklessness is their primary concern, which interacts alongside with family dysfunction, neglect and insecure attachments, low quality day-care and schooling, and state of neighbourhood. With fewer work opportunities more people are having to settle for meagre salaries until something better comes along (which it wont). There is also an increase in the number of single parents, due to increases in death rates and divorce among the poor. With only one source of income, and a loss of support when it comes to raising children, single parents are forced to depend on income support. As a result, they will never manage to find their way out of poverty. References Bailey and Brake, Corrigan and Leonard, Bolger, Becker and MacPherson, Adams, The British Journal of Social Work; Poverty and Social Justice, Oxford Journals, 1975, 1978, 1981, 1988, 1998. Blair, T. Breaking the Cycle: Taking stock of progress and priorities for the future; A Report by the Social Exclusion Unit. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister; London. ODPM publications, 2004. Bruce, M. L. Hoff, R. A. Social and physical health risk factors for first-onset major depressive disorder in a community sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 29, 165-171, 1994 Cooley, C. Human Nature and the Social Order, New York: Charles Scribners Sons, revised edn, 1922 Denham, A. Garnett, M. From the cycle of enrichment to the cycle of deprivation: Sir Keith Joseph, problem families and the transmission of disadvantage. Policy Press; Benefits, Volume 10,Number 3, pp. 193-198(6), 1 October 2002 Department of Health Saving Lives: Our Healthier Nation. London: Stationery Office, 1999b Duncan, G. J. Brooks-Gunn, J. Consequences of Growing Up Poor. New York: Russell Sage, 1997 Gans, H. The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All, Social Policy: pp20-24, July/ August 1971 Jarvis, E. (1971) Insanity and Idiosy in Massachusetts: Report of the Commission of Lunacy, 1855. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971 Jones, C and Novak, T. Poverty, welfare and the disciplinary state. London: Routledge, 1999 Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Inquiry into income and wealth. Volumes 1 and 2. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation, 1995 Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Becker, Smale, Social Exclusion Unit, Sociology and Social Work; Poverty and Social Work Service Users, Learning Matters, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2004. Langner, T. S. Michael, S. T. Life Stress and Mental Health. London: Collier-Macmillan, 1963 Lewis, O. The Children of Sanchez. New York: Random House, 1967. Novak, T. Critical Social Policy; Rethinking Poverty. Vol 15, Sage Journals, 1995 The PSE survey, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, http://www.bris.ac.uk/poverty/pse/